Impact of socioeconomic status on the association between Homosexuality and HIV AIDS - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 1012 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2019/07/05 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: AIDS (HIV) Essay Homosexuality Essay Did you like this example? There were approximately 36.7 million people living worldwide with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2016 [Global HIV/AIDS overview 2016]. While there have been a lot of studies conducted about the relation between sexual orientation and HIV, there is not enough research on the impact of socioeconomic status and HIV/AIDS. In this literature study, I aim at shedding a brief light into different stages of an HIV/AIDS in homosexuals and the impact of the socio-economic conditions on their situations. Scheibe et. al (2016) studied about how social factors influence vulnerability to consequences of HIV infection among men who have sex with men (MSM) in Cape Town, South Africa. Six semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with MSM followed by six focus group discussions with a diverse sample of MSM. They found that a wide range of factors like religion (58% HIV patients practiced Christianity while 15% were Muslims), culture and political context have a great impact on the lives of MSM in South Africa and it could contribute to different levels of vulnerability. It was found that all these factors were directly influenced by socioeconomic status. Being Caucasian (15%) were believed to provide a degree of protection against several factors that contributes to vulnerability to HIV. In addition to race, employment status (HIV occurrence: Unemployed 36%, part time 40%, full time 24%) and educational achievements were found to be important part of social positions. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Impact of socioeconomic status on the association between Homosexuality and HIV AIDS" essay for you Create order The stigma and discrimination that the low income MSM faced in the school system was thought to negatively affect school performance and thus career opportunity[Scheibe et. al (2016)]. The prevalent stigma is the antiquated misinformation about sexual orientation based on historical social myths. As observed by one of the respondents of the focus group, the trauma of being physiologically different is more stressful in less wealthy areas. It was also found in the study that MSM with lower incomes were more likely to engage themselves in high-risk practices and thus make themselves more vulnerable to the risks of HIV. This marginalization of the economically weak and the stigmatization leads to poor education and increased vulnerability a section of the society. Rodriguez diaz, Jovel Toledo et. al (2015) examined the socioeconomic factors and sexual health in HIV positive men who have sex with men in Puerto Rico. Socioeconomic factors that were studied were age, education level, employment, religion and partnership status. Sexual health factors studied were sexual satisfaction, condom use and sexual health knowledge (SHK). The participants who were unemployed (45.18% of the total) reported a lower rate of condom use that those who were employed/students. The research findings showed that there is a correlation of sexual health education and its impact on HIV related risks. Interestingly, the study also remains cautious of the implicit assumptions of the possible monotony of the sample set. It would be interesting to correlate the findings of this study with data of other STI/STDs among a similar sample set of volunteers. Kinsler, Wong et.al (2006) studies the relationship between perceived stigma from a health care provider and access to care among 223 low income HIV infected individuals in Los Angeles county. In the study conducted, 54% of the respondents have had homosexual contact while the rest had heterosexual or injected drug use as HIV risks. In the study, over half of the participants reported had an annual income less than $8000 and approximately half (46%)had no insurance. Perceived stigma from the health care provider was assessed in the form of questions like: After the diagnosis of HIV, has your health care provider been uncomfortable with you? Has your healthcare provider treated you as an inferior? Has your healthcare provider preferred to avoid you? Have you been refused to be served? It was found that 26% of the respondents reported at least 1 of the 4 types of perceived stigmas from a health care provider. 58% of respondents reported low access to care on at least 1 out of 6 access to care items at baseline. Based on this and results over a 6 month period, the result observes that the primary care providers have implicit biases which negatively influences the healthcare experience of the patients. However, it is also suggested that the only long term sustaining bias is insurance. This is presumably because of unbiased providers being favored among patients. Joyce, Goldman et. al assessed the socioeconomic circumstances of older patients with HIV and AIDS. Socioeconomic factors included were insurance coverage, employment and financial resources of older and younger adults. They compared subjects who were HIV positive from HIV cost and services utilization study (HCSUS) with subjects from the health and retirement survey (HRS). The study examined employment among HIV positive patients and found out the difference in the age and race of these people. Similar to the aforementioned studies, it was found that Caucasians are more likely to be working than non-Caucasians. Among the non Caucasian populations, the older patients were more likely to surrender employment compared to their younger counterpart. About 27% stopped working within the first year of their diagnosis. Only 9.4% older minorities with HIV had employer-based insurance, whereas 5.37% of non-whites have such coverage. The study found that HIV positive individuals with low earni ng potential might be more likely to stop working so that they can qualify for public insurance. In-fact majority of those not working receive health insurance through Medicaid/Medicare. Apart from the economic aspect of this study, it also paints the picture of desperation that a large portion of this population may be feeling about the healthcare and the cost of healthcare. Elford, Jonathan, et al. as well as Lessard, David, et al. found a positive correlation between the economic and racial profile of the participants of their studies and their vulnerability to HIV. It is clear that statistically it is much more likely that the occurrence of HIV in specific predictable sections of the society. Theoretically, these studies could form the basis of targeted education and preventative measures. However, there still needs to be a more detailed analysis from a heterogeneous and universal set of data to construct predictive models for socio-economically vulnerable audience. These studies would form a sustainable action plan for alleviating HIV.

Essay on Israels Surrender of the Gaza Strip Did Not...

In 2005, the Israeli government decided to give up the Gaza Strip, including Gush Katif, in an effort to bring peace to the middle east. They did not take into consideration much of the consequences of their actions. The attempt to create peace by giving Gush Katif to the Palestinians not only did not have that effect, but the exact opposite effect, creating more violence between the Israelis and the Palestinians, as well as a lack of trust between the government and some of the Israeli people. Gush Katif is a village in the Middle East that is a part of the Gaza Strip. In 2005, it was given to the Palestinians by the Israeli government. Gush Katif was home to 1,800 religious Jewish families, 8,500 people, from both traditional and†¦show more content†¦Due to its close proximity to Palestinian land, Gush Katif was a constant location for terrorist attacks. The first main attack was by the Gaza palestinians in December of 1987. The residents of Gush Katif did not know how to handle the conflict. Prime Minister Yitzchak Rabin said that they will help Gush Katif and prove to the palestinians that they will not win through violence, no matter how long it takes. Another famous bombing in Gush Katif was the November 20th 2000 school bus bombing. At 7:30am, a bomb blew up a school bus carrying children to school. Two children were killed and nine were critically injured. Three siblings had to get amputations. There were also constant attacks to vehicles on Kissufim road, most of which were suicide bombings on children’s busses. Lots of people got hurt. Despite all the terrorism, the residents of Gush Katif were not afraid of living there. They claimed that this land was given to them in the Torah and that all of Israel had their problems so they would not feel safer in the center of Tel-Aviv. In 2004, Prime Minister Ariel Sharon announced The Disengagement Plan. This plan stated that the residents of Gush Katif and other villages throughout Gaza would be expelled from their homes and their land would be given to the palestinians. The government hoped that this would reduce fighting between theShow MoreRelated Middle East Essay1381 Words   |  6 Pagessurprise of many, the armies of Egypt, Syria and Jordan fell to Israeli troops and instead of gaining land, they lost it. Almost twenty years later war broke out once more. This time Egypt had blocked off the Straits of Tiran, which supplied most of Israels exports, and mobilized most of their fighting army on the border with Israel. Israel, instead of waiting for Egypt to attack first, Israel made the first move and attacked Egypt. Israel destroyed almost all of Egypts bombers while they were stillRead MoreIsrael Palestine Conflict, an International Relations Research Paper8749 Words   |  35 Pages Mitali Agarwal and Pragati K. B Roll no. 924 Roll no. 929 IV semester IV semester BPSc LLB BPSc LLB Submitted to: Prof. Om Prakash National Law University, Jodhpur Abstract After more than 50 years of war, terrorism, peace negotiation and human suffering, Israel and Palestine remain as far from a peaceful settlement as ever. The entire Middle Eastern region remains a cauldron waiting to reach the boiling point, a potent mixture of religious extremism, (Jewish, ChristianRead MoreIsraeli Security Concerns2903 Words   |  12 PagesAbstract The following essay takes a realist approach to the issue of Israels refugee problem. The essay addresses the security issue of the Right of Return where more than 4 million Palestinian termed refugees clamor to return to their homes that they were displaced from during the 1948 war. Whilst Palestinians demand the right to return to their Israeli-located homes under the right of United Nations General Assembly article 11 of Resolution 194, Israelis fear the displacement of their stateRead MoreIsrael Palestine Conflict, an International Relations Research Paper8755 Words   |  36 Pages Mitali Agarwal and Pragati K. B Roll no. 924 Roll no. 929 IV semester IV semester BPSc LLB BPSc LLB Submitted to: Prof. Om Prakash National Law University, Jodhpur Abstract After more than 50 years of war, terrorism, peace negotiation and human suffering, Israel and Palestine remain as far from a peaceful settlement as ever. The entire Middle Eastern region remains a cauldron waiting to reach the boiling point, a potent mixture of religious extremism, (Jewish, ChristianRead MorePak Us Relations7976 Words   |  32 PagesPakistan including Kashmir need to be settled through bilateral negotiations as agreed to by the two countries when they signed the Simla Agreement on 2 July 1972. †¢ Insurgency and terrorism in Kashmir is deliberately being fueled by Pakistan to create instability in the region. The Government of India has repeatedly accused Pakistan of waging a proxy war in Kashmir by providing weapons and financial assistance to terrorist groups in the region.. Indian policy toward Kashmir they operate their

Organisational Analysis Free Essays

The aim of this essay is to explore and discuss the view that mechanistic and bureaucratic organisations will probably struggle to encourage organisational learning. The structure and learning perspectives of organisational analysis will be used as academic lenses to view and propel this discussion. Relevant theories will be applied to analyse my own organisational experiences (direct and indirect). We will write a custom essay sample on Organisational Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Examples derived from case studies of organisational situations will be looked at so as to make the discussion more cohesive. To begin with definitions of the perspectives in question will be given as to make understanding of the different types of organisations clearer. According to Drummond (2000) mechanical imagery depicts organisations as static machine-like entities operating in a steady and predictable manner. Likewise, the metaphor of bureaucracy suggests that people in organisations are bounded by rules, job descriptions and organisation charts. It is important to note that Taylor’s philosophy is founded upon mechanical imagery. The key concepts in the structural perspective are based on Taylor’s principles of scientific management and Weber’s ideal bureaucracy. Taylor (1911) formalised the principles of scientific management into four objectives which are division of labour, one best way, scientific selection and training and monitor performance. In Taylor’s view, organisations need clearly articulated objectives, sharp divisions of labour, specified hierarchies and responsibilities and formalised systems of control. Taylor saw people as near-automatons (robots), potentially troublesome perhaps, but basically programmable given proper supervision and appropriate incentives. In Taylor’s eyes, the existence of contradiction and ambiguity in organisations were signs of managerial weakness, something which could and should be eliminated. His work is basically a recipe for clarity and control (Drummond, 2000). According to Taylor (1911), output could be increased not by requiring operatives to work harder, but by showing them how to work more efficiently. Taylor came up with scientific management for shop floor workers but I have realised that even the fast food industry has adopted the same kind of set-up. Whilst working in McDonalds on the BigMac grill there was a systematic approach to work and it was timed, 1 – place buns in toaster, 2 – after thirty seconds place burgers on grill, 3 – dress the buns, 4 – place burgers on buns. This routine was done by two people and we would do this all day. Steps 1 and 3 would be done by one person and steps 2 and 4 by another; this was done so that the person handling meat stayed there and not touch the buns. It was like an assembly line because the burgers moved from one employee to the other doing different things but to achieve the same outcome. Constant monitoring was in place as we were given stars according to progress or put simply as to how many different stations you can work at, e. g. a star for each station – tills, chips or chicken. The layout of the kitchen looked like one conveyor belt going round and round. Critics have mentioned that mechanistic approaches work well when the task is straightforward, stable environment, replication, precision and compliance. All these attributes are greatly present in McDonalds and the other fact was that we had to clock in and out we were expected to behave like machines to be predictable and efficient. Extreme forms of the machine metaphor of organisations are seen in the bureaucracies and mass production factories – of which McDonalds is a bit of both. Weber based his ideal bureaucracy model on legal and absolute authority, logic and order. In Weber’s idealised organisational structure, the responsibilities for workers are clearly defined and behaviour is tightly controlled by policies, procedures and rules. To a certain extent organisations should have some sort of bureaucracy and there are a number of bureaucratic structures. Morgan (1993) mentioned that the types of bureaucracy are rigid (person at the top), bureaucracy with task forces and project teams (guided by strict procedures) and bureaucracy with senior management team. The main idea that Weber brought about was the rational type of bureaucracy which is characterised by specialisation, authority hierarchy, operating rules and procedures and impersonality. Now looking at Taylor the characteristics of his organisation are division of management and labour, scientification of work and specialisation of tasks. It is not difficult to note that Taylor was a big influence on Weber and we can conclude that in these types of organisations decision-making is based on fairness and strict procedures. Weber’s theory of organisations reflected an impersonal attitude towards the people in the organisation. Indeed, the work force, with its personal frailties and imperfections, was regarded as a potential detriment to the efficiency of any system. Weber’s idea of rationality was best developed further by Ritzer and coined a new term for it â€Å"McDonaldisation†. According to Ritzer (2007), a society characterised by rationalisation is one which emphasises efficiency, predictability, calculability, substitution of nonhuman for human technology and control over uncertainty. The process of McDonaldisation takes a task and breaks it down into smaller tasks. This is repeated until all tasks have been broken down to the smallest possible level. The resulting tasks are then rationalized to find the single most efficient method for completing each task. All other methods are then deemed inefficient and discarded. McDonalds have standardised their product to make it more efficient, e. g. McDonalds is the same wherever you go – a big mac is still a big mac, we know what to expect in a McDonalds and we know how to behave as well because of that predictability. McDonalds’ environment is structured in a way that there are no surprises to customers. Efficiency is brought about by looking for the best route to getting the best output with least amount of resources and costs i. e. he grills in McDonalds cook meat within seconds and one person needed to operate a grill at any time. This brings us to the notion of control and calculability, there is great reliability on technology rather than humans and emphasis is on quantity rather than quality. Clearly these two approaches to viewing organisations are sort of out-dated and can be detrimental to the progress of an organisation in this day and age. Hence organisations are requi red to be flexible and evolve and also be able to cope with today’s pressures. Organisational learning (OL) is the way forward and aims at making sure that organisations are well equipped for the ever changing market place. Weick and Roberts (1993) mentioned that OL consists of interrelating actions of individuals, which are their â€Å"heedful interrelation† which results in a â€Å"collective mind†. Organisational Learning as the ability of an organisation to gain insight and understanding from experience through experimentation, observation, analysis, and a willingness to examine both successes and failures. Heedful interrelating is made possible via contribution, representation, and subordination. Organisational learning can be done and have a finite outcome. Organisations need to work faster and adapt quickly if they are to survive the current and turbulent environmental changes. Argyrils and Schon identified different types of organisational learning single and double loop learning. Single loop learning is sometimes referred to the lowest level because it only responds to change by detecting errors and then modifying strategies. Double loop learning is an advanced form of single loop learning meaning that it questions if operating norms are appropriate whereas in single loop there is embededness of culture and learned habits become resistant to change and learning. In other words double loop learning is concerned with the why and how to change the organisation while single loop learning is concerned with accepting change without questioning the underlying assumptions and core beliefs. In today’s organisational world knowledge has become really important. It is contributing to high value products and services. The rate of learning has to be greater than the rate of change and learning is the responsibility for everyone in the organisation. Organisational learning links nicely with learning organisations, this type of organisation continuously transforms itself and its context. â€Å"A learning organization is an organisation skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights. † (Garvin, 1993, p. 80. ) Fincham and Rhodes (2005) mentioned that knowledge management involves organisations developing practices and policies that reward, recognise and harness the storehouse of knowledge of its people continuously innovate and remain creative using brain power as a source of competitive advantage. With the latter in mind it is wise to judge that the old ways of analysing organisations notably the structural perspective hinders organisational learning in a number of ways. Taking McDonalds as the case study it is clear that employees are merely resources which are there for use to maximise profits. Deskilling of workers because of the monotonous and repetitive work which can lead to stress because of emotional labour. Boredom and disassociation with task will creep in leading to alienation and lack of commitment. More routine and rigorous structure limits a lot because it is not good in times of change. There is limited space for creativity, innovation and flexibility because of the fragmented problem solving approach and the disconnected roles and communication. Low level of commitment and loyalty has seen a high staff turnover at McDonalds. Organisations are made up of human beings not machines. Employee alienation and customer dehumanisation is not attractive in any organisation. Bureaucratic organisations will struggle to encourage organisational learning because of their hierarchical structure. Management seem to have all the decision-making powers and this might not sit comfortably with the rest of the employees as they are disempowered. This obviously leads to inefficient decision-making, slow response due to the chain of command and politics is rife. Several critics have noted that the learning organisation model implies that managers must become interested as never before in the process of learning, as well as the results. The central statement of the learning organisation is in two parts: (1) that a key success factor for any business in the age of global competition is its ability to innovate continuously, appropriately, and faster than its rivals, and (2) that can only happen through unleashing the untapped capabilities of all its employees. The learning organisation is definitely a new and significant paradigms shift from the traditional bureaucratic view because it emphasises process over structure and contains a number of components. These components include: a vision of better organisational life, a body management practice guidelines and a network of experts and advocates, a set of mental models regarding individual and social psychology, the sociology of organisations and change and finally a concern for values of wholeness (in preference to fragmentation) and respect for people (Wheatley, 1992). Cravens et al (1996) also noted that organisations need to shift away from the old structural perspective because of the new highly dynamic environments. Many corporations are reducing management layers and organisational bureaucracy in pursuit of rightsizing or the horizontal organisation, concurrent actions include re-engineering business processes followed by organisational redesign and greater use of multifunctional teams, central issues are obtaining precision, flexibility and speed in the execution of programmes and strategies. This shift has also seen the new approach develop powerful information systems and automated knowledge capture permit the empowerment of employees in the management of business processes, priorities are more customer satisfaction and retention through greater organisational responsiveness and competitive advantage for the reformed organisation comes from added-value, created through knowledge feedback and exploitation (Cravens et al, 1996). To be effective in the workplace, we must be better learners; we must become more open to alien ideas and more humble about our own limitations. Tools and techniques cannot be separated from the vision and the values of the learning organisation. (Kofman and Senge, 1995). The learning organization approach is not just about improving productivity and work satisfaction it is also about the fundamental ethics of the workplace and the marketplace. People’s needs have to be considered and should people not be seen as productivity factors; this holistic approach sure does improve conditions and output. A happy worker is a motivated worker. I only lasted six months at McDonalds and the reasons for that are outlined in the essay. References Argyris, C. (1993) On Organizational Learning. Oxford: Blackwell Business/Blackwell Publishers. Cravens, D. W. (1996) New organisational Forms for Competing in Highly Dynamic Environments: The Network Paradigm. British Journal of Management 7: p203-217 Drummond, H. (2000) Introduction to Organisational Behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press Encyclopaedia of Small Business (2007) Organization Theory. Encyclopedia. com [Accessed on 12 Dec 2011] http://www. encyclopedia. com Fincham, R and Rhodes P. (2005) Principles of Organizational Behaviour, 4th Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press Garvin, David A. (1993) â€Å"Building a Learning Organization,† Harvard Business Review, July-Aug: p. 78-91. Kofman, F and Peter, S. (1995) Communities of Commitment: The Heart of Learning Organizations, in Learning Organizations. Sarita Chawla John Renesch, (eds. ), Portland, Productivity Press. Morgan, G. (1993) Imaginisation, London: Sage Ritzer, G. (2007) The McDonaldisation of Society, 5th ed. London: Pine Forge Press Senge, P. (1990) The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organisation, New York: Doubleday. Senge P et al. (1994) The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook, New York: Doubleday Taylor, F. W. (1911) The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper and Row. Wheatley, M. J. (1992) Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. How to cite Organisational Analysis, Papers

Capital Maintenance and Solvency Process

Question: Discuss about the Capital Maintenance and Solvency Process. Answer: Introduiction: Beneath the Corporations Act 2001, a no-liability organization in Australia has its declared objective that it is individually aminingorganization and that is not designated to call on the unindemnified issue value of shares. It is organization, which is limited to mining actions and is the only kind of company, which is permitted to this type of responsibility, provided at times monetarily uncertain business of mining. Majority of normal regulations in Act apply to no-liability organizations, accumulate that a mining organization should endorse a structure,which declare their objective as mining. No-liability organizations should not be puzzled with the approach of restricted responsibility. Section 117 and 112 is in corporate law of Australia, which is used for registering a company. Section 112, states that organization should have share capital, objective should be stated by organizations constitution, should not engage in any other purpose. Section 117, states that name, address should be registered, opening-closing hours should be registered, etc. Maintenance of Capital Doctrine The doctrine of retaining and sustaining the lawful capital collected by an organization is extended and long-standing convention in a corporation law. In the case of Trevor v Whitworth it was first endorsed, for the safety of creditors beside the additional risk of strategic conduct of organization directors, which was lead about by the approach of restricted legal responsibility. The principle cause behind engagement of organization in business actions is to attain benefits. On the other hand, majority of these business entities get their finance by the medium of creditors or shareholders not from the running business of theirs. In regard of this, it consequently becomes necessary that effectiveness and safety of capital should be determined prior to creditors might risk spending in any organization. In a way of determining investors, several Acts and regulations were declared and capital maintenance is one of them. In spite of that, business dealings have constantly undergone expansion thus analyzing the security beard by the circumstances of capital maintenance doctrine inadequate to accommodate current requirements. However, the Company Act 2006 purpose was to update the doctrine and it remains inadequate in its aim. Few administrations like, UK, Australia and Singapore have transformed their capital maintenance regulations in current years, each with few deviations to fit in their peculiar situation. In the belated 19th century from its prime time, the maintenance of capital doctrine has developed significant agitation in corporate law. The success of this doctrine in attaining defensive objectives has been challenged. Consequently, corporate law regulations concerning capital related judgments have been reconstituted increasingly. Australian legislators have moved away from the previous exorbitant strategies to corporate capital diversifications by taking upon such tests and tools. The Corporations Act 2001 use this more easy-going strategy needing that solvency, justice and revelation problems be fulfilled by directors prior to capital connected judgments are made. These judgments comprise the share capital devaluations, payment of dividends, share buy-backs, and the plan of monetary help to buy shares. Directors of organizations while making such judgments will be individually responsible. If, they make such a judgments in voliti on of duty forced upon them to stop the organization from trading while they are bankrupt where they have logical basis for speculating that the organization was bankrupt at the time that the capital linked judgments were made or would become bankrupt as a consequence of the judgments. This further moderate strategy has been enforced in several other administrations. The maintenance of capital doctrine is yet the part of Australian Corporation law as both are associated with the aspect of shares and gives safety to shareholders of organization. As per corporation law, organization is responsible to give dividend to their shareholder in percentage of quantity of shares and shareholders have power to observe financial flow in organization. In addition, maintenance of capital doctrine too gives safety to shareholders from fraud and makes accurate system for allocation of dividends to shareholders. Bibliography Austlii (2011) Corporations Act 2001- Sect 112. Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca2001172/s112.html (Accessed: 20 January, 2017) Austlii (2011) Corporations Act 2001- Sect 117. Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca2001172/s117.html (Accessed: 21 January, 2017) Castle Corporate (2017) No Liability Company. Available at: https://www.castlecorp.com.au/products/no-liability-companies/ (Accessed: 20 January, 2017) Dequest, J. (2013)Capital Maintenance and Solvency Requirements. Available at: https://www.deguest.asia/en/item/53-capital-maintenance-and-solvency-requirements (Accessed: 21 January 2017). Federal Register of legislation (2013)Corporation Act 2001. Available:https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2013C00003(Accessed: 21 January 2017). Hannigan, B. (2012)The doctrine of capital maintenance. Available at:https://www.oxfordlawtrove.com/view/10.1093/he/9780199608027.001.0001/he-9780199608027-chapter-20(Accessed: 218 January 2017). Law Trove (2017) The doctrine of capital maintenance. Available at: https://www.oxfordlawtrove.com/view/10.1093/he/9780199608027.001.0001/he-9780199608027-chapter-20 (Accessed: 21 January, 2017)